A Framework for Organizing the

Scholarship of Campus Ecology

James H. Banning and Christopher E. Bryner

Campus Ecology is the conceptual framework focused on the dynamic relationship between students and the campus environment. This article brings together the scholarship related to the campus ecology movement and places it into a conceptual framework. This framework divides this scholarship into seven distinct categories with the intention of creating a user-friendly resource for the further study and application of campus ecology in higher education.

Campus ecology is a conceptual framework focused on the dynamic relationship between students and the campus environment. It is a framework that allows the student affairs profession not only to think about its work as encompassing students and their development, but also to develop and change campus environments to foster student learning and development. The "campus ecology" movement began in the early 1970s and significant scholarship associated with campus ecology has been published during the past thirty years. The resources representing this scholarship have been scattered across several fields (student personnel, counseling psychology, and ecological/environmental psychology) and have never been brought together into one location.

The purpose of this article is two-fold: (1) to bring together the body of work related to the development and application of the campus ecology movement in college and university student affairs work, and (2) to present this literature within a conceptual framework. Through the search for campus ecology related material, approximately one hundred articles, monographs, and books were located. Chronologically, the literature begins with Lewin's (1936) book, Principles of Topological Psychology, and ends with the Strange and Banning (2000) publication, Educating by Design: Creating Campus Learning Environments that Work.

The conceptual framework is built around the following structure: (a) foundation scholarship associated with the ecological/environmental perspective, (b) foundation scholarship associated with the college environment literature, ________________________________________________________________

James H. Banning is a professor in the School of Education at Colorado State University. Christopher Bryner (’01) currently serves as the Aggie Village Manager for Apartment Life at Colorado State University.

(c) works focusing on the conceptual framework of campus ecology, (d) works with a focus on campus assessment and design from the campus ecology perspective, (e) scholarship relating to student development theory/practice and campus ecology, (f) resources focusing on campus programs (i.e. administration, admissions, college unions, counseling programs, housing, ombudsman programs, and outdoor programs), and (g) resources which focus on campus issues from the campus ecology perspective (i.e. academic integrity, student activism, diversity, first year students, student involvement, and issues of student outcomes and retention).

FOUNDATION — ECOLOGICAL/ENVIRONMENTAL

The campus ecology perspective builds on the foundation provided by the scholarship in ecological and environmental psychology. Grounded within this scholarship is the notion that there is a mutual interdependence among personal and environmental factors in behavior determination. Within this foundational literature, the ecological equation of behavior being a function of both the person and the environment (B=f(P,E)) emerged. This formula was first presented by Kurt Lewin in Principles of Topological Psychology. In addition, the ecological/environmental foundational scholarship points to the importance of the physical environment and its particular role in determining human behavior. The following articles represent the ecological/environmental foundation for campus ecology including the contributions from the fields of environmental psychology, ecological psychology, social ecology, and human development.

Barker, R.G. (1968). Ecological psychology: Concepts and methods for studying

the environment of human behavior. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

Bookchin, M.(1982). The ecology of freedom. Palo Alto, CA: Cheshire Books.

Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by

nature and design. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Gerst, M., & Moos, R. (1972). The social ecology of university residences. Journal of Educational Psychology, 63, 513-522.

Insel, P., & Moos, R. (1974). Psychological environments: Expanding the scope of human ecology. American Psychologist, 29, 179-189.

Lewin, K.(1936). Principles of topological psychology. New York: McGraw-Hill.

Moos, R. H., & Insel, P. (1974). Issues in social ecology. Palo Alto, CA: National Press Books.

Moos, R. H. (1976). The human context: Environmental determinants of behavior. New York: Wiley.

Pervin, L. A. (1968). Performance and satisfaction as a function of individual-environment fit. Psychological Bulletin, 69(1), 56-58.

Proshansky, H., Ittelson, W., & Rivlin, L. E. (1970). Environmental Psychology: Man and his physical environment. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.

Sommer, R. (1969). Personal space. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

Stern, G. G. (1964). "B=f(P,E)". Journal of Personality Assessment, 28(2), 161-168.

Stern, G. G. (1970). People in context: Measuring person-environment congruence in education and industry. New York: Wiley.

Walsh, W. B. (1978). Person/environment interaction. In J. H. Banning (Ed.), Campus ecology: A perspective for student affairs. (pp. 6-16). Cincinnati, OH: National Association Student Personnel Administrators.

Walsh, W. B., Craik, K. H., & Price, R. H. (1992). Person-environment psychology. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Witt, P. H., & Handal, P. J. (1984). Person-environment fit: Is satisfaction predicted by congruency, environment, or personality? Journal of College Student Personnel, 25(6), 503-508.

FOUNDATION — COLLEGE ENVIRONMENT

The foundational scholarship pertaining to the college environment establishes the college environment as a unique setting and highlights the importance of established ecological/environmental variables in understanding campus environments. It represents the beginning efforts to both assess and manage the college environment in relationship to student outcomes. Critical to these resources is the early work of Alexander Astin, who brought to the attention of researchers and practitioners in higher education the importance of the campus environment, and the role it plays in the student experience. The following literature also presents the early formulations that focused on the relationship between students and the campus environment. These resources serve as the foundation for campus ecology as a perspective for student affairs.

Astin, A. W. (1968). The college environment. Washington, D.C.: American Council on Education.

Astin, A. W., & Holland, J. L. (1961). The environmental assessment technique: A way to measure college environments. Journal of Educational Psychology, 52, 308-316.

Crookston, B. B. (1975). Milieu management. NASPA Journal, 13(1), 45-55.

Pace, C. R., & Stern, G. G. (1958). An approach to the measurement of psychological characteristics of college environments. Journal of Educational Psychology, 49, 269-277.

Stern, G. G. (1965). Student ecology and the college environment. Journal of Medical Education, 40, 132-154.

Walsh, W. B. (1973). Theories of person-environment interaction: Implications for the college student. Iowa City, IA: American College Testing Program.

CAMPUS ECOLOGY CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK

The resources in this section present the scholarship directly related to the understanding and development of the campus ecology model and its relationship to the field of student affairs. Included are frameworks relating to the campus ecology model, the ecosystem design process, the conceptions of the campus environment, and the application of the model to the field of student affairs. These references represent the birth of the campus ecology movement.

Banning, J. H., & Kaiser, L. R. (1974). An ecological perspective and model for campus design. The Personnel and Guidance Journal, 52(6), 370-375.

Banning, J. H. (1980). The campus ecology manager role. In U. Delworth & G. R. Hanson (Eds.), Student services: A handbook for the profession (pp. 209- 227). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Banning, J. H. (1980). Campus ecology: Its impact on college student personnel work. In D. G. Creamer (Ed.), Student development in higher education: Theories, practices, and future directions (pp. 129-137). Cincinnati, OH: American College Personnel Association.

Banning, J. H., & McKinley, D. L. (1980). Conceptions of the campus environment. In W. H. Morrill & E. R. Oetting (Eds.), Dimensions of intervention for student development (pp. 39-57). New York: Wiley and Sons.

Banning, J. H. (1988). Ecological transitions. The Campus Ecologist, 6(4), 1-3.

Banning, J. H. (1992). The connection between learning and the learning environment. In E. Hebert & A. Meek (Eds.), Children, learning, & school design (pp. 19-30). Winnetka, IL: Winnetka Public Schools.

Banning, J. H. Ed. (1978). Campus ecology: A perspective for student affairs. Cincinnati, OH: National Association of Student Personnel Administrators.

Coffman, J., & Paul, S. C. (1987). Operrationalizing the ecological perspective. The Campus Ecologist, 5(1), 1-2.

Gertner, D. M. (1990). James H. Banning: College environments and the survival of the "fittest:" An interview with the "stepmother" of campus ecology theory. New York Journal of College Student Personnel, 7(1), 26-48.

Gonzales, G. (1989). Understanding the campus community: An ecological paradigm. In D. Roberts (Ed.), Designing campus activities to foster a sense of community. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Huebner, L. A. (1980). Interaction of students and campus. In U. Delworth & G. R. Hanson (Eds.), Student services: A handbook for the profession (pp. 117-155). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Huebner, L. A. (1979). Emergent isssues of theory and practice. In L. A. Huebner (Ed.), Redesigning campus environments. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Kaiser, L. R. (1978). Campus ecology and campus design. In J. H. Banning (Ed.), Campus ecology: A perspective for student affairs (pp. 24-31). Cincinnati, OH: National Association of Student Personnel Administrators.

Ortiz, J. (1990). Music as sound campus ecology. The Campus Ecologist, 8(4), 1-4.

Paul, S. C., & Morrill, W. H. (1979). Applying the ecosystem perspective to the ecosystem perspective. In L. A. Huebner (Ed.), Redesigning campus environments (pp. 85-98). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Sorenson, D. M. (1987). Introduction to the campus ecology issue. NASPA Journal, 25(1), 2-4.

Strange, C. C., & Banning, J. H. (2000). Educating by design: Creating campus environments that work. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc.

Wedge, K. (1983). The ecological perspective: Strengths and concerns. The Campus Ecologist, 1(4), 1-3.

Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education. (1973). The ecosystem model: Designing campus environments. Boulder, CO: Author.

CAMPUS ECOLOGY ASSESSMENT AND DESIGN

This section of resources pertains to the general application of the campus ecology perspective to the assessment and design processes applicable to the college environment. A number of different strategies are presented for the assessment of campus environments including the ecosystem design model, the consultation, the application of ethnography, and the employment of surveys. Works included here examine such campus ecology factors as behavioral traces and way finding. This section includes examples of some of the first practical applications of the campus ecology model on college campuses.

Aulepp, L., & Delworth, U. (1978). A team approach to environmental assessment. In J. H. Banning (Ed.), Campus ecology: A perspective for student affairs (pp. 51-71). Cincinnati, OH: National Association of Student Personnel Administrators.

Aulepp, L., & Delworth, U. (1976). Training manual for an ecosystem model. Boulder, CO: Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education.

Banning, J. H. (1979). Consultation for environmental change: An administrator's view. In M. K. Hamilton & C. J. Meade (Eds.), Consulting on campus (pp. 47-56). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

Banning, J. H. (1988). Behavioral traces: A concept for campus ecologists. The Campus Ecologist, 6(2), 1-3.

Banning, J. H. (1991). Ethnography: A promising method of inquiry for the study of campus ecology. The Campus Ecologist, 9(3), 1-4.

Banning, J. H. (1996). Wayfinding: Welcoming? or a sign of the two ecology problem. The Campus Ecologist, 14, 2-4.

Banning, J. H. (1996). Bumper sticker ethnography: Another way to view the campus ecology. The Campus Ecologist, 14(3), 1-4.

Banning, J. H. (2000). Bumper sticker ethnography: A study of campus culture. Colorado State University Journal of Student Affairs, 9, 11-17.

Barrow, J., Marsicano, L., & Bumbalough, P. (1987). Adapting the ecosytem model for environmental assessment and design. Journal of College Student Personnel, 28(4), 378-379

Conyne, R. K., & Clack, R. J. (1981). Environmental assessment and design. New York: Praeger.

Corazzini, J. (1980). Environmental redesign. In U. Delworth & G. R. Hanson (Eds.), Student Services: A handbook for the profession (pp. 350-367). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Fawcett, G., Huebner, L., & Banning, J. H. (1978). Campus ecology: Implementing the design process. In J. H. Banning (Ed.), Campus ecology: A perspective for student affairs. Cincinnati, OH: National Association of Student Personnel Administrators.

Huebner, L. A. (1979). Redesigning campus environments. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Huebner, L., & Corazzini, J. (1984). Environmental assessment and intervention. In S. Brown & R. Lent (Eds.), Handbook of counseling psychology (pp. 579-621). New York: John Wiley and Sons.

Huebner, L., & Banning, J. H. (1987). Ethics of intentional campus design. NASPA Journal, 25(1), 28-37.

Huebner, L. A., & Paul, S. C. (1978). The assessment of environmental quality. In T.O'Riordan (Ed.), Resource management and environmental planning. New York: Wiley.

Huebner, L. A. & Lawson, J. M. (1990). Understanding and assessing college environments. In D. Creamer (Ed.), College student development (pp. 127-145). Alexandria, VA: American College Personnel Association.

Kaiser, L. R. (1975). Designing campus environments. NASPA Journal, 13(1), 33-39.

Kaiser, L. R., & Sherretz, L. (1978). Designing campus environments: A review of selected literature. In J. H. Banning (Ed.), Campus ecology: A perspective for student affairs (pp. 72-111). Cincinnati: National Association of Student Personnel Administrators.

Lewis, J. C. (1979). Annotated references. In L. A. Huebner (Ed.), Redesigning campus environments (pp. 99-104). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Tisdale, J. (1991). The college catalog: A barometer of campus ecology. The Campus Ecologist, 9(4), 3.

Treadway, D. M. (1979). Use of campus-wide ecosystem surveys to monitor a changing institution. In L. Huebner (Ed.), Redesigning campus environments (pp. 37-50). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc.

CAMPUS ECOLOGY AND STUDENT DEVELOPMENT

The scholarship referenced in this section highlights the importance of the relationship between campus ecology and student development. Campus ecology is not a student development theory, but a method of conceptualizing the processes associated with student development. The following resources not only address the relationship between campus ecology and student development, but also highlight the environmental factors that are important to student development. Environmental concerns are often neglected in a traditional “person” only focused developmental theory, one that only takes into account the “person” element of (B=f(P,E)). The following body of work underscores the importance of the college environment and its transactional relationship with students. A useful definition of traditionally focused development theory along with an ecologically focused perspective can be found in the Banning (1989) article referenced below.

Banning, J. H., & Cunard, M. (1986). Environments supports student development. ACU-I Bulletin, 54(1), 8-10.

Banning, J.H. (1989). Creating a climate for successful student development: The campus ecology manager role. In U. Delworth & G. R. Hanson (Eds.), Student Services: A Handbook for the profession (pp. 304-322). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Blocher, D. H. (1974). Toward an ecology of student development. The Personnel and Guidance Journal, 52, 360-365.

Blocher, D. H. (1978). Campus learning environments and the ecology of student development. In J. H. Banning (Ed.), Campus ecology: A perspective for student affairs (pp. 17-23). Cincinnati, OH: National Association of Student Personnel Administrators.

Delworth, U., & Piel, E. (1978). Students and their institutions: An interactive perspective. In A. Parker (Ed.), Encouraging development in college students. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press.

Gertner, D.M. (1991). Men and student development: Emerging notions from the perspective of campus ecology. The Campus Ecologist, 9(1), 1-4.

Hurst, J. C. (1987). Student development and campus ecology: A rapprochement. NASPA Journal, 25(1), 5-17.

Oetting, E. R. (1967). Developmental definitions of counseling psychology. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 14(4), 382-385.

Rodgers, R. F. (1990). An integration of campus ecology and student development: The Olentangy project. In D. Creamer (Ed.), College student development (pp. 155-180). Alexandria, VA: American College Personnel Association.

Sorenson, D. M. (1987). The journey is the reality: Developmental-ecological programming at Brigham Young University. NASPA Journal, 25(1), 38-44.

Sullivan, C. E. (1987). Developmental, ecological theories and wellness approaches: A synthesis for student life programming. NASPA Journal, 25(1), 18-27.

CAMPUS ECOLOGY AND CAMPUS PROGRAMS

The scholarship presented in this section pertains to the application of the campus ecology perspective within particular organizational settings on the college and university campus. Various methodologies including the ecosystem model and the use of ethnographies are used to evaluate the campus ecology of specific programs, offices, and residential living environments. While this material focuses upon particular campus programs, the strategies for assessment presented within the literature can be applied to other campus programs and organizational settings.

Administrative Programs

Banning, J. H. (1995). Ecological thinking and moral behavior in student affairs organizations: Importance of feminist leadership. Colorado State University Journal of Student Affairs, 4, 2-7.

Hurst, J. C., & Ragle, J. D. (1979). Application of the ecosystem perspective to a dean of student's office. In L. A. Huebner (Ed.), Redesigning campus

environments. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Hurst, J. C. (1980). The emergence of student/environmental development as the conceptual foundation for student affairs and some implications for large universities. In D. G. Creamer (Ed.), Student development in higher education: Theories, practices, and future directions (pp. 151-163). Cincinnati, OH: American College Personnel Association.

Admissions Programs

Williams, T. E. (1986). Optimizing student institutional fit: An interactive perspective. College and University, 61(2), 141-152.

College Union Programs

Banning, J. H., & Cunard, M. (1996). An ecological perspective of buildings and behavior: Implications for the renovation and construction of the college union. College Services Administration, 19(4), 38-42.

Banning, J. H. (2000). Brick and mortarboards: How student union buildings learn and teach. College Services Administration, 23(3), 16-19.

Counseling Programs

Banning, J. H. (1989). Ecotherapy: A life space application of the ecological perspective. The Campus Ecologist, 7(3), 1-3.

Conyne, R. K. (1975). Environmental assessment: Mapping for counselor action. The Personnel and Guidance Journal, 54, 151-154.

Conyne, R. K., & Rogers, R. (1977). Psychotherapy as ecological problem solving. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice, 14(3), 298-305.

Conyne, R. K., Banning, J.H., Clark, R.J., Corazzini, J., Huebner, L., Keating, L., & Wrenn, R. (1979). The campus environment as client: A new direction for college counselors. Journal of College Student Personnel, 20, 437-442.

Conyne, R. K. (1985). The counseling ecologist: Helping people and environments. Counseling and Human Development, 18 (2), 1-11.

Hurst, J. C., & McKinley, D. L. (1988). An ecological diagnostic classification plan. Journal of Counseling and Development, 66(5), 228-233.

Morrill, W. H., Oetting, E. R., & Hurst, J. C. (1974). Dimensions of counselor functioning. The Personnel and Guidance Journal, 52, 354-359.

O'Halloran, S., & Spooner, S. (1992). Eating disorders and applied campus ecology. The Campus Ecologist, 10(3), 1-2.

Tracey, T. J., & Sherry, P. (1984). College student distress as a function of person-environment fit. Journal of College Student Personnel, 25(5), 436-442.

Housing Programs

Banning, J. H. (1995). Environmental scanning: Application to college and university housing. The Journal of College and University Student Housing, 25(1), 30-34.

Banning, J. H. (1995). Cocooning: A qualitative analysis of the ecology of college housing trends. The Campus Ecologist, 13(2), 1-4.

Banning, J. H. & McKelfresh, D. A. (1998). Using photographs of the housing mission statement in staff training. Talking Stick, 15(8), 22-24.

Schroeder, C. C., & Freesh, N. (1977). Applying environmental management strategies in residence halls. NASPA Journal, 15(1), 51-57.

Schroeder, C. C. (1981). Student development through environmental management. In G. Blimling & J. Schuh (Eds.), Increasing the educational role of residence halls (pp. 35-49). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Schroeder, C. C., & Jackson, G. S. (1987). Creating conditions for student development in campus living environments. NASPA Journal, 25(1), 45-53.

Schuh, J. H. (1979). Assessment and redesign in residence halls. In L. Huebner (Ed.), Redesigning campus environments (pp. 23-36). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, Inc.

Wilson, K., & Banning, J. H. (1994). From home to hall: An ecological transition. Colorado State University Journal of Student Affairs, 2, 69-73.

Ombudsman Programs

Hobson-Panico, P., Ahuna, L., & Hobson-Panico, S. (1985). Can ombudsmen influence organizational effectivenss through the practice of campus ecology? The Campus Ecologist, 3(4), 1-3.

Outdoor Programs

Banning, J. H., & Burfeind, H. S. (1993). Why ropes courses work: An ecological perspective. Colorado State University Journal of Student Affairs, 2, 27-31.

CAMPUS ECOLOGY AND CAMPUS ISSUES

The scholarship referenced in this section describes campus ecology as it pertains to different campus issues. In this section the researcher will find both the theoretical and practical application of the campus ecology model, using various methodologies. A large portion of the work listed here deals with the examination of campus artifacts within the environment and their interaction with students. Campus artifacts are believed to send nonverbal messages to the observer, in this case, students. Using photography, much like an anthropologist would to conduct an ethnography, campus artifacts are captured on film to allow an examination of their content, value, and type. This method has been used to examine campus artifacts and their potential messages of sexism and multiculturalism. Relevant journal articles are referenced below.

Campus Activism

Banning, J. H., & McKinley, D. L. (1988). Activism and the campus ecology. In K. M. Miser (Ed.), Student affairs and campus dissent: Reflections of the past and challenge for the future (pp. 41-54). Cincinnati, OH: National Association of Student Personnel Administrators, Inc.

Campus Diversity

Banning, J. H., & Hughes, B. M. (1986). Designing campus environments with commuter students. NASPA Journal, 24(1), 17-24.

Banning, J. H., & Luna, F. C. (1992). Viewing the campus ecology for messages about Hispanic/Latino culture. The Campus Ecologist, 10(4), 1-4.

Banning, J. H. (1992). Visual anthropology: Viewing the campus ecology for messages of sexism. The Campus Ecologist, 10(1), 1-4.

Gerst, J., & Fonken, M. A. (1995). Homoprejudice within the campus ecology. The Campus Ecologist, 13(3), 1-2.

Love, C. T., Banning, J. H., & Kotisiopulos, A. (1998). Visual diversity for a family and consumer science higher education facility. Journal of Family and Consumer Sciences, 90(3), 52-54.

St.Clair, D. (1994). The drum: Improving the campus ecology for Native American students. The Campus Ecologist, 12(2), 1-4.

First Year Students

Banning, J. H. (1989). Impact of college environments on freshman students. In M. L. Upcraft & J. N. Gardner (Eds.), The freshman year experience (pp. 53-63). San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, Inc.

Student Involvement

Kuh, G. D., & Schuh, J. H. (1991). The ecology of involving colleges. The Campus Ecologist, 9(4), 1-3.

Student Outcomes

Baird, L. L. (1976). Structuring the environment to improve outcomes. In O.T.Lenning (Ed.), New directions for higher education: Improving educational outcomes, 16. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Banning, J. H. (1987). The ecology of outcomes. The Campus Ecologist, 5(2), 1-3.

Student Retention

Banning, J. H. (1984). Retention: An ecological perspective. The Campus Ecologist, 2(2), 1-3.

SUMMARY

The body of work associated with the campus ecology movement has been presented within a structure that will allow writers and researchers in student affairs to quickly locate needed foundational material. The intention of this article was not to develop a full integration of the campus ecology scholarship, but to bring it together in one place within a conceptual structure. In addition to

providing a "central location" of the student affairs topics that have been addressed from the campus ecology perspective, the user can quickly see there are many topics yet to be addressed from the campus ecology perspective within the field of student affairs.

Of the many potential topics for the future, two important campus issues would be well served by scholarship designed and implemented from a campus ecology perspective. First, understanding the issues surrounding diversity and how to enhance the campus environment's tolerance and celebration of all kinds of differences is critical to today's higher education. Campus ecology grew out of a 1970s era of "activism for change." The passion associated with these times is again called upon to bring about change in the campus ecology that will enhance the growth and well-being of all students.

Second, a very important current movement within the higher education environment is focus on small learning environments. Freshman interest groups, small living learning groups, first-year seminars are all examples of the focus on small learning environments. Again, these efforts would be well served by scholarship that looks at the developmental and cognitive outcomes of these unique "small learning environments." As the researchers of the future move forward on these two topics, as well as others important in the lives of students, it is hoped the resources and the conceptual structure of this article will familiarize them with the significant work associated with campus ecology.