ABSTRACT

The aim if this paper is to explore the ethnobotany of two distinct areas: Amazonia and the Sonoran Desert. The plants discussed in the paper were, and in some cases still are, vital to the health and/or livelihood of the indigenous people of the two regions. In the paper, Amazonian plants have been separated into three groups: hallucinogens, medicines and poisons. The hallucinogens consist of three families: the Malphighiaceae, Myristaceae, and Solanaceae families. The medicines contain two plant families: Meliaceae and Aquifoliaceae, as well as the fungus Balansia cyperi which parasitizes the sedge Cyperus articulatis. The poisons are grouped in one family: the Moonseed or Menispermaceae family. Occasionally, plants in the three categories will overlap when a particular plant has several uses. Much of the material in the paper regarding Amazonian plants has been drawn from the work of ethnobotanist Richard Schultes, who did extensive field research in Northwest Amazonia. Discussion of the Sonoran Desert plants is based on the work of ethnobotanist Gary Nabhan. Two desert plants are discussed in the paper, Larrea tridentata and Prosopis spp. Historically, these two plants have been medicinally important and widely used among the tribes inhabiting the Sonoran Desert. In addition, both L. tridentata and Prosopis have interesting ecological interactions that are presented in the paper. The phytochemicals of both regions’ plants have been identified and included in the paper. Alkaloids, which are nitrogen compounds, are largely responsible for the hallucinogenic qualities of the plants discussed, as well as the toxic effect of poisonous arrows. Plants rich in tryptamines, which also contain nitrogen, are used in conjunction with hallucinogenic alkaloids to heightened the desired effects. Terpenoids, namely triterpenes and tetraterpenes, along with phenolics (tannins, lignins, simple phenols and flavonoids) are implicated in the medicinal properties of plants. In some cases, the mode of action of the phytochemicals has been elucidated; and is briefly discussed where appropriate.

PLANTS OF THE AMAZON

The number of plant species in the Amazon basin is uncertain, but most botanists estimate at least 80 000 species, making it a rich and diverse niche in which to explore phytochemistry. Ethnobotanical studies have revealed some important plant medicines and elucidated the bioactive constituents. Uses, preparation and significance of the plants vary widely amongst the indigenous tribes. I have attempted to profile those plants most prominent in the literature, and those whose chemistry has been studied. Research into this area has elucidated the wisdom of indigenous Amazonian peoples, their connection with the land and the spirit world that is vital to their survival. Chemical analysis has confirmed ethnomedicinal usage.

HALLUCINOGENS

Banisteriopsis caapi

The most important hallucinogen in the Amazon basin is Banisteriopsis caapi, a liana of the Malpighiaceae family. B. caapi is commonly known as ayahuasca, meaning ‘vine of the soul’. The hallucinogenic drink is made from the bark, and used in curative and religious ceremonies dating back to prehistory (Callaway 1998). The Indians who use it believe that it keeps away the forces of darkness (Plotkin 1993). Ayahuasca is employed by shamans to connect them to the spiritual world. Through this communication, they are able to diagnose or treat sick ‘patients’. Sometimes, they visit the spirit world to obtain new crop cultivars or medicines.

The active constituents of the plant are mostly alkaloids: Beta-carboline alkaloids harmine and harmaline act as MAO inhibitors blocking the activity of monoamine oxidase, thereby inhibiting the breakdown of neurotransmitters (Callaway 1998).

Several other plants are mixed with B. caapi to lengthen and strengthen its effects. Examples are Datura, Cyperus (Sedge family), Piper (pepper family) , Diplopterys cabrerana and Psychotria viridis.

The leaves of the malpighiaceous D. cabrerana contain tryptamines, as do the leaves of P. Viridus, a member of the Rubiaceae (madder) family. The tryptamine found in the latter has been identified as N,N-dimethyltryptamine. Tryptamines are only psychoactive when taken with an MAO inhibitor, such as the beta-carboline of B. caapi. This combination intensifies the narcotic effects of the hallucinogenic drink.

Brugmansia aurea

Like many other members of the Solanaceae family, B. aurea is toxic and extremely potent, due to the presence of tropane alkaloids, including atropine and scopolamine. Thus, B. aurea has hallucinogenic properties. In the Sibundoy Valley of Columbia, medicine men consume an aqueous maceration of the leaves to aid in divination and prophecy. In addition to the hallucinogenic effects, consumption of B. aurea may produce a loss of senses, drying of the throat and mouth, and occasional violent reactions. Despite the often frightening effects, the plant is used medicinally. A decoction of the leaves treats cold and flu symptoms: chills, aches, sore throat, fever, and muscle cramps.

In contrast to the people of the Sibundoy valley, the Matsigenka of the Peruvian Amazon use B. aurea in a slightly different manner. Both cultures cultivate this plant selecting for low levels of toxicity.

The Matsigenka make a paste of the leaves and apply it externally to treat broken bones, arthritis, swelling and stomache-aches. A small dose may be taken internally by women to aid in a difficult childbirth.

A terminally ill person, or one suffering from a severe accident or witchcraft may take large internal doses. Shamans often consume B.aurea decoctions as an initiation step, to connect them with guardian spirits.
 
 

The Nutmeg family

Nearly every species of the nutmeg family is employed as a hallucinogen. The Myristaceaes are comprised of tropical trees, and are concentrated in the Amazon Valley. Members contain lignins and tannins, sterols, triterpenes, and ethereal oils. Species of this family are used medicinally as well as for their psychotropic effects. In the Columbian Amazon, it is believed that the tree Dialyanthera parvifolia has wound healing powers, and the crushed bark is rubbed on the skin for mite and fungal infections. Compsoneura sprucei is used as a stimulant. The bark is powdered and mixed with farina to strengthen persons recovering from an illness. An infusion of this species is drunk before taking the above-mentioned ayahuasca, to purify the body prior to hallucinations.

The two most common ways to prepare a hallucinogen from Nutmeg members are as follows: the resin or reddish exudate of the bark is made either into a into a paste, or pressed into a pellet, both of which are ingested, or dried to make a snuff. Intoxication following inhalation of the snuff is almost immediate.

There is one species that is choice for the desired hallucinogens, and that is Virola theiodora. The mode of preparing snuff, pills or paste varies amongst tribes. Usually snuff is prepared by scraping the soft inner bark of the tree and kneading it in water. That mixture is then boiled down into a thick syrup, left in the sun to dry, then pulverized. The resulting mass is oftentimes mixed with the ashes of Theobroma subincanum, or the leguminous tree Elizabehta princeps.

Paste is prepared in much the same way, but of course not allowed to dry out.

The active principles reside in the cambial sap, therefore boiling the cambial tissue coagulates proteins and polysaccharides.

Medicinally, the leaves of V. theiodora are boiled and the tea is ingested as hot as possible by women experiencing extremely difficult or delayed childbirth.
 
 

MEDICINES

Carapa guianensis

Carapa guianensis (common name Andiroba) is a member of the Meliaceae (Mahogany) family, and contains tetraterpenes, triterpenes, limonoids, and alkaloids. Carapa spp. are medium-sized to large trees, native to tropical America and Africa. Schultes found the peoples of the Northwest Amazon using the bark and leaves in a febrifugal (fever reducing) and vermifugal (worm inhibiting) tea, and externally as a wash for skin problems and ulcers. The seed is taken orally (preparation unknown) as an anti-pholgistic and anti-arthritic. (Schultes 1990).

Tests performed in 1993 confirm the following activities: anti-bacterial (bark), antitumor (flowers), and antifungal (heartwood). The same series of tests identified the active principles as Gedunin, alpha-Dihydroxy, and alpha-11-beat-Trihydroxy, all triterpenenes. Unspecified alkaloids were also present (Hammer 1993).

The ethnomedicinal uses of Carapa by the Caboclo Indians of Marajo Island, the main island of the Amazon Delta, were documented in 1993. The uses are listed below in order of high to low frequency.

For arthritis: seed oil is obtained by boiling the seed endosperm, and kneading the resulting mass into a loaf-like shape which is put into a funnel shaped piece of metal, or a banana leaf. The oil that exudes from the bottom is applied directly to joints. It is believed that only those with ‘good souls’ will be able to find the best seeds for high quality Andiroba oil. People with ‘black souls’ will not be able to locate good seeds. Furthermore, the most crucial step in the preparation process is kneading the seed mass; this is when the magic occurs.

For throat inflammation: One spoonful of the above-mentioned Andiroba oil is mixed with the ‘Cabacinha’ fruit and gargled. Also, a decoction of the cortex is made and applied externally to the throat.

For insect bites: Oil or decoction (both described above) is applied directly to the bite.

For ear infections: Andiroba oil is mixed with hot water and human milk and dropped into ear.

To stimulate digestion: After 15 days of drying the cortex, it is macerated and mixed with water, and one cup is taken before meals (Hammer 1993).

Dr. A Toyofica et al. of the Museum of Medicinal Plants in Macapa, Brazil performed tests that tentatively suggest that anticarcinogenic activity might be present in Carapa. In fact, the seed oil is used by Caboclos women to curb vaginal pain, (often a symptom of uterine cancer). It is applied directly to the cervix wall (Hammer 1993).

Ilex guayasa

Among the Jivaro Indians of Ecuador and Peru, Ilex guayusa commonly known as holly, and a member of the Aquifoliaceae family, is widely used. It is said to be good for pregnant women, useful in calming the nerves, regulating menstruation, and easing liver ‘pain’. Because of the emetic properties of Ilex, it is used prior to magico-religious ceremonies. (Wagner 1994). But, perhaps its most popular use is as a stimulant. It is the only known species to contain high amounts of caffeine, as well as low amounts of theobromine and an isomer, theophylline, all xanthine alkaloids. (Allport 1944).

Theophylline’s ability to dilate the coronary blood vessels via inhibition of phosphodiesterase makes it useful in combining with cardiac glycosides for therapeutic purposes (Wagner 1988).

Cyperus articulatis and Balansia cyperi

Cyperus articulatis is also used by Jivaro women as an oxytocic agent. Although sedge itself has no oxytocic properties, it is parasitized by the fungus Balansia cyperi Edgerton. B. cyperia belongs to the Clavicipitaceae family, which also contains Clavicpes purpurea, well known by its common name, ergot. Like C. purpurea, the sclerotia of B. cyperi are rich in alkaloids. In small amounts, these alkaloids aid in uterine contractions, and in reducing post partum bleeding.

POISONS

Curare, or arrow poisons, are used widely amongst Amazonian tribes. Poison arrows are the traditional hunting weapons. The poisons, in most cases, are derived from plants. The potency of curare results from alkaloids present in many members of the Moonseed, or Menispermeaceae family. The Moonseed family contains 400 species found in the tropics, mostly lianas. Generally, curares interfere with the electrical impulses traveling from the nerves to the muscles. The result is an arrest of muscle activity, including the diaphragm – causing the victim to suffocate almost instantly.

Each tribe has their own curare recipe, but most implement the bark of Moonseed family members, which is often mixed with unspecified plants. In addition to several structural types of alkaloids, this family of plants contains saponins, sterols, tri- and polyterpenes, ethereal oils and polyphenols (Schultes 1990).

Curare is not used on all hunting expeditions, but only strategically, when needed. For example, curare is always used when hunting monkeys, because of their intelligence and their tails. When they are shot with arrows that are not poisoned, they often wrap their tails around a limb and die in the tree. Curare relaxes their muscles and they fall to the ground.

Members of the moonseed family have healing attributes as well as deadly ones. Perhaps the most interesting, and least studied, is the use of Curarea tecunarum by the Deni Indians of the Brazilian Rio Cunhua. This species is used as a contraceptive. Little is known about its use, except that the stem is crushed in water to make a tea.

C. tecunarum is also used Among the Waorani tribe to treat fungal and skin infections; and as an arrow poison. The Waoranis, a tribe of about 600 living in the Ecuadorian Amazon, have remained isolated, even from other Indians, until about forty years ago when missionaries contacted them. They are unique in that they have a very limited pharmacopoeia. C. tecunarum is commonly called ‘oo-nta’ by the Waoranis, which translates as "blow-hunt meat fat thing", indicative of its ability to kill prey (Schultes 1990).

In Ecuador, a tea is prepared from the roots of Abuta grandifolia and administered during childbirth when bleeding is excessive. The same tea is given to nervous children.

Western science has embraced curare, and it is currently in use in almost every major hospital in the U.S.(Plotkin1993). It is used as a muscle relaxant during throat, abdominal, and rectal surgery. The active principle in this case is the alkaloid d-turbocurarine. I have not found literature to date that suggests that this alkaloid can be synthesized in a form that possesses all the attributes of the plant.

Ethnobotany of the Sonoran Desert

In 1993, ethnobotanist and writer Gary Nabhan collaborated with Paul Mirocha on a journey and study of the flora of the Sonoran Desert. Together, they searched the desert and probed the people of the area for plant uses and cures. Larrea tridentata and Prosopis spp. are the plants that were once indispensable to the Sonoran natives due to their ability to cure, or ease, an eclectic number of ailments. Currently, these two plants are not as extensively used as they once were.

Larrea tridentata

The zygophyllaceous Larrea tridentata, commonly called Creosote Bush, is the medicine cabinet of the Sonoran Desert. It has traditionally been used as a treatment for an overwhelming number of afflictions. Congestion, colds, lung infections, intestinal problems, stomach cramps associated with delayed menstruation, nausea, wounds, dandruff, poisons, poor circulation, consumption, hepatic problems, and dry skin and brittle hair, are but a few in a long list.

Seri Indian women use creosote as a contraceptive, by burning resin over a fire, collecting the droplets in water, and drinking the liquid. This is thought to prevent conception. (Nabhan 1983). The Papago traditionally fried creosote branches in tallow to produce an ointment that was massaged into rheumatic limbs. Creosote has been shown to inhibit damage to the liver and lungs caused by free radicals (Moore 1989). Creosote is also a powerful disinfectant.

Creosote contains a mixture of phenols, particularly guaiacol and cresol. Other plant constituents include eighteen distinct flavone and flavonol aglycones, a dihydroflavonol, larreic acid, two guaiuretic acid lignins, and quercetin bioflavonoids, One of L. tridentata's most important chemicals, and responsible for much of its antimicrobial action, is one of the guaretic acid lignins, nordihydroguaretic acid (NDGA), which typically comprises 5-10% of the dry leaves. Methylated NDGA (3’-O-methyl-NDGA) isolated from Larrea tridentata, was found to suppress HIV-1 replication in infected human cells by preventing proviral transcription and HIV Tat-regulated transactivation. In addition, NDGA has been found to inhibit cytokine-stimulated promoter activity of HIV (Hwu 1998).

In addition to Creosote’s chemical arsenal used against human afflictions, this bush is well equipped for self-preservation. The resinous blend of saponins, lignins, flavonoids and volatile oils are repellent to herbivores. A species of Astroma grasshopper is one of the few herbivores that can tolerate creosote’s chemical defenses. Other herbivores, like the wood rat (Neotoma lepita) will tolerate low amounts of creosote leaves if they do not have a choice of other vegetation (Harborne 1993).

Creosote has an allelopathic affect on surrounding vegetation. Allelopathy is one plant’s chemical interference or defense against another plant. In this case, creosote inhibits the growth of surrounding vegetation. NDGA is most likely the inhibiting agent (Harborne 1993).
 
 

 Prosopis spp.

Prosopis julifera and Prosopis pubescens, known as Mesquite, have an interesting ecological history. The leguminous Prosopis spp. Evolved under camels, horses and mastodons. The germination rate of Prosopis seeds increase when the seeds pass through the digestive tract of an animal. Thus, when herbivore numbers declines near the end of the Pleistocene, so did Prosopis spp. Thus, when cattle and horses were established in the Sonoran Desert in the late 17^th century, Proposis flourished along with them, making a comeback.

Sonoran dwellers found remedies in the leaves, pods and bark of Prosopis. The plant was utilized to combat diarrhea and other gastrointestinal inflammations such as dyspepsia, ulcers, colitis, and hemorrhoids; used for conjunctivitis, as a wash for broken skin, a mucilage for sore throats and stomach pain. The ground pods were used as a food and in bread, and mixed with water to make a sweet drink (Nabhan 1983).

The constituents of Prosopis which contribute to its medicinal use are 5-hydroxytryptanine, tryptamine, tyramine and prosopine. These chemicals are present in the leaves, pods and bark. The gum contains L-arabinose, and D-glucuronic acid.
 
 

CONCLUSION

Ethnobotanical study of Amazonia and the Sonoran Desert has identified the plants and phytochemicals that have played important roles in the health, religion, and livelihood of the native tribes inhabiting the two areas. This paper surveys plant species from eight families, in addition to one fungus. Chemical studies have elucidated the secondary plant compounds responsible for the plants’ potency. Among them, alkaloids (nitrogen compounds) are largely responsible for toxic effects which are harnessed as poisons for hunting, and as hallucinogens in religious ceremonies. Tryptamines are also nitrogen compounds used in conjunction with alkaloids to give hallucinogenic effects. Triterpenes and tetraterpenes (both terpenoids), and simple phenols, lignins, tannins, and flavonoids (all phenolics) have medicinal value.
 
 

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